They are prepared in the same manner as water table contour maps. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), ILRI Publication 16, Wageningen, The Netherlands. i. Specific benefits of subsurface drainage are: (i) aeration of the soil for maximum development of plant roots and desirable soil microorganisms; (ii) increased length of growing season because of earlier possible planting dates; (iii) decreased possibility of adversely affecting soil tilth through tillage at excessive soil water levels; (iv) improvement of soil water conditions in relation to the operation of tillage, planting and harvesting machines; (v) removal of toxic substances, such as salts, that in some soils retard plant growth; and (vi) greater storage capacity for water, resulting in less runoff and a lower initial water table following rains. For example, if a calculation calls for a 6.8-inch diameter pipe and a 7-inch pipe isnt available, select an 8-inch pipe. Stationary water can make the soil dirty that cause corrosion. Theres a danger of toxic contamination whenever a flood occurs. In connecting the metal pipe to the drain, a concrete collar may be installed. Simply stated, you can only justify the increased cost associated with narrower drain spacings to a point. Fig. Res. Improvement of soil moisture conditions for operation of farm machinery. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience. 4.1A). Subsurface drainage is used where the soil is permeable enough to allow economical spacing of the drains and productive enough to justify the investment. Figures are from Chapter 14 of the NRCS Engineering Field Handbook. People thinking about installing a drainage system should also know their rights and responsibilities about removing water from land and transferring it to other land. Then sub-surface drainage scheme in the form of tile drains may . As soon as the two terminals in the cylinder touch the water level, the circuit is complete and an indication is given on the ammeter. 4.3. SURFACE DRAINAGE DESIGN - DALLAS FORT WORTH. Pumping is sometimes required to create an adequate outlet. (D) Continuous record of the water levels can also be maintained using a water level recorder. Fig. This section deals with two important factors viz., pipe slope and drainage coefficient which decide the size of a drain pipe and its gradient. This software is accessible in state SCS offices and has been accepted by many extension and research engineers in the humid states (Schwab et al., 2005). 2. 4.1 Purpose and Benefits of Subsurface Drainage. Soil salinization induced by shallow saline groundwater in coastal areas can be managed using subsurface pipe drainage (SPD) for agricultural land reclamation. Functional cookies help to perform certain functionalities like sharing the content of the website on social media platforms, collect feedbacks, and other third-party features. Turning such drains into open collectors may then be convenient, thereby deciding against a composite system, Surface-water inlets can be built into the drain in places where surface water is likely to accumulate. Storage facilities for effluent must exist for extended periods of time when the ground for subsurface irrigation systems is wet or frozen. Image Guidelines 4. Maximum slopes are of practical significance only for collectors. There may be reasons to close or reduce pipe outflow temporarily (e.g., if the field is under rice). FAO (1985). Mole drains are cylindrical channels formed at a desired depth below the soil surface. Installations 4. These instruments consist of a metallic cylinder with two insulated terminals, attached to, the end of the tape. The cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary". Nomographs (charts) in the Minnesota Drainage Guide. Although there may be many possible layout alternatives for a given field (Figure 1), evaluate specific drainage goals to find the best layout. This way, laterals can intercept water as it flows downslope. Many county soil surveys have also identified each soil types potential yield for common crops using sound management practices. The Minnesota Drainage Guide contains a table of drain spacing recommendations for many soils in Minnesota. The minimum total length should be 5 m, and the diameter should be the same or larger than the drain pipe size. This maximizes the probability of designing subsurface drainage features that perform as intended. Conversely, the maintenance of a singular system is easier and can be done by using standard flushing equipment. 2023 Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. 4.1B), or a herringbone system wherein they join at sharp angles (Fig. In addition, operators have found it difficult to make cuts deeper than five feet. Moreover, in the case of a two-layered profile, with a permeable top soil underlain by a deep slowly-permeable substratum, the drains should be installed in the upper layer (e.g., just above the second layer). Cavelaars, J.C., Vlotman, W.F. In this section, we shall discuss the most important considerations that lead to a designed spatial arrangement of a subsurface drainage system in an area (i.e., showing all the items on a map). It is assumed that land grading can achieve precision up to 5 cm and as such, a maximum of 5 cm of water has to be removed from the fields. It collect water from road surface and dispose to nearby stream. its various advantages and disadvantages over other subsurface drainage systems. After that, decreasing profits is the only result. Information on soil salinity and alkalinity is needed if surface drainage systems are to be planned along with reclamation of such soils. (1975). The Department of Agriculture Food Security Act and the farm bills of 1985, 1990 and 1996 created many special wetlands restrictions and mandates that all drainage projects, including upgrades, must follow. Schwab, G.O., Fausey, N.R., & Weaver, C.R. 4.5B). Isobath lines are lines of equal depth to water table. Drain envelopes arent filters. 2. It determines the hydraulic head available for drainage flow. Surface drainage inputs can be evaluated, together with the effect of subirrigation through the existing drainage system. The observation of watertable levels in piezometers located at different depths indicates the existence of hydraulic pressure causing either upward or downward movement of water. Aeration of rootzone for maximum development of the plant roots. Table 4is an example of a recommendation from the Minnesota Drainage Guide. Too much water in your garden will, no doubt, kill your plants. It is accomplished by deep open drains or buried pipe drains (FAO, 1985). The outlet is different for different points of a drainage area. Benefits of Subsurface Drainage 2. Location of field drains in relation to field topography: (A) Well-adapted; (B) Poorly adapted. Adding perennial crops to the rotation may also reduce N losses to surface waters in addition to decreasing water drainage. Areas with deep frost penetration and snow cover during winter: When the snow melts and the topsoil thaws, but soil at some depth is still frozen, a perched water table will form and will damage a crop of winter grain. Of the traditional intakes available, the slotted or perforated riser is a good option because it promotes some settling of sediments in the basin during flow events. Each category (advantages and disadvantages) is subdivided into three groups: 1) Water and soil issues; 2) Cropping and cultural practices, and 3) System infrastructure issues. The choice between a singular and a composite system must be based on a number of factors such as the desirability of open drains, head loss, and costs. Account Disable 12. Advanced Drainage Systems (ADS) also offers an app, consult these drainage tools and resources, nitrogen fertilizer best management practices. If the variation in soil hydraulic conductivity is significant, the area to be drained should be divided into sub-areas or blocks of a suitable size, and for each of which a uniform and representative drain spacing is selected (Cavelaars et al., 1994). Potential Benefits of Subsurface Drainage Increased yield Quicker field access for springtime tillage and spraying operations Improvement in soil tilth Deeper root penetration Reduced compaction Reduced water stress on plants Quicker warming of soil temperature Improved soil conditions help promote quicker emergence and plant population Transactions of the ASAE, 31, 133-141. DESIGN OF SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM. An additional requirement is that the outlet should not obstruct the mechanical maintenance of the open drains. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. When using a system like ours you get the advantage of closer lateral spacing's, (runs (20') or less), with typical . The watertable contours are plotted in the same way as surface contour lines arc plotted. 4.5 shows two possible options for such a case: a composite system (Fig. Moreover, an indigenous and user-friendly software package named DrainSolver has been developed by Prof. Madan Kumar Jha of IIT Kharagpur (developer of this course) which facilitates computer-aided design of surface and subsurface drainage systems, simulation of subsurface flow to drains, computation of design drain discharge and leaching requirements, economic analysis of drainage systems, and the analysis of special drainage problems. As an example, lets assume that the calculated drain spacings in a project area vary from 18 to 85 m (after ignoring a few extreme values). Such a regular pattern can either be a parallel grid system wherein the field drains join the collector at right angles (Fig. culvert * design aspects: 1. hydrologic analysis: estimation of quantity of run-off flowing into the drain Q=c*i*A Q=run-off ,cumecs c=run-off coefficient =ratio of run-off to the rate of . After digging the trench to the desired depth the pipes are held end to end without any jointing. It is accomplished by deep open drains or buried pipe drains. 4.8), depending on the need for frequent inspection. In new reclamation or land-consolidation schemes, the entire network of roads, irrigation canals, open drains, and pipe drains can be designed simultaneously, which logically offers the best possibility of an optimum layout. A typical example is a three-layered soil profile that can be found in alluvial soils. This holds for field drains discharging into a collector as well as for collectors discharging into an open main drain. FAO (1985). Provision of a drain pipe that does not protrude from the side slope: In this case, the side slope is protected by a chute made of flexible material such as plastic reinforced with glass fiber. Surface-water inlets can be built into the drain in places where surface water is likely to accumulate. As ideal conditions (i.e., flat) are rare, the drainage base may be too high in parts of the area. Other types of outlets are vertical drainage outlets, which are essentially wells extending into a porous soil layer or open rock formation in the lower horizons. <br />D15 means 15% of the filler is larger than the specified size, 85% spec.<br />. As a precaution, the drain can be supported by a rigid bridge across the unstable strip. Fig. 3. In National Corn Handbook. From a water quality perspective, almost any inlet configuration is preferable to using an open pipe thats flush with the ground surface. Although these losses can be reduced, they cannot be entirely eliminated. Secondly, an important guideline is to keep crossings of pipe drains with channels and roads to a minimum. North Carolina Agr. Answer: SURFACE DRAINAGE * components: 1. cross slope or camber 2. road side drains 3. cross drains eg. It costs less to water plants more fully. Considering the sedimentation risk involved, surface water inlets are not very common. Planning an effective drainage system takes time and requires you to consider a number of factors, including: Field elevation, slope (grade) and topography assessment. Where the drainage system is connected to other pipe drains, the outlet should have sufficient capacity to carry the additional discharge. Field drain outlets in a singular drainage system are many, and hence they should generally be inexpensive. Through these benefits drainage enhances farm productivity by: (a) adding productive land without extending farm boundaries, (b) increasing yield and quality of crops, (c) permitting good soil management, (d) ensuring that crops may be planted and harvested at optimum dates, and (e) eliminating inefficient machine operation caused by small wet areas in fields. However, in irrigated areas with a rather complex infrastructure of roads, irrigation canals, and small farm plots (e.g., as in Egypt), composite systems are generally preferred (Cavelaars et al., 1994). 3. Low maintenance cost and economic return in terms of fodder, fuel wood and timber. Whether an open channel or a closed pipe, it must be large enough to carry the desired drainage discharge from a field quickly enough to prevent significant crop damage. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. 8. (C) Portable battery operated instruments are available to measure the watertable depths quickly and accurately. 4.10). There are certain advantages and disadvantages of a singular drainage system. The features of the subsurface drainage system as adopted in Japan are as follows: The design discharge depends upon the allowable time period of removal of surface water from the fields. Diameter of the pipes, range from 50 mm to 100 mm. Broadly speaking, surface drainage is the removal of excess water from the surface of the land. For the pipe drainage system, the drainage base is the water level that can be maintained in the recipient main drains. The observation wells are useful for determining the depth of watertable from ground level. The parameters, characterizing soil hydraulic properties, are obtained from field investigations. Pipe depths are typically a minimum of 700mm to 1200mm for drainage in soils growing pasture. Smedema, L.K. Advantages of surface water management compared to subsurface drainage treats the cause of groundwater problems, rather then the problem cost of construction is relatively lower surface run-off water is usually of good quality and can be stored in farm dams or directed into natural watercourses water erosion and groundwater recharge are reduced Surface drainage utilizes waterways, ditches, and other means to help direct excess water off a field and into larger streams and rivers . 4.5. Grades are supported by the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) EP260 standards. Poorly drained lands are usually topographically situated so that when drained, they may be farmed with little or no erosion hazard. Terms of Service 7. It is cheap to maintain. 4.3) shows where the collector is to be installed in a thalweg, which is the line joining the lowest points along a valley. This is accomplished using one of the following: (1) Tile drains including perforated pipes. Two pumps and wells are needed to achieve uniform water distribution on the field, which slopes 0.14%. Singular systems with open collector drains are feasible in the areas where the infrastructure has been fully remodelled under a land consolidation scheme (e.g., as in Iraq), or in newly reclaimed areas. A brief description on singular and composite drainage systems is provided below. Where available, drop inlets and other permanent structures are suitable for stabilizing the outlet. Other functions, included for surface drainage are: To keep road surface dry. Wet, soggy fields can delay tillage, planting, spraying, and harvest operations. Saturated soils dont provide sufficient aeration for crop root development, and can be an important source of plant stress. University of Minnesota Department of Biosystems & Agricultural Engineering (1997). Many soils in Minnesota and throughout the world would remain wet for several days after a rainfall without adequate drainage, preventing timely fieldwork and stressing growing crops. An ideal drainage system would have a uniform drain depth. Without underground (subsurface) drainage, the incredible bounty of some of our most productive agricultural land would be dramatically compromised. In some cases, the local effect of insufficient drainage can be offset by other measures such as adding extra nitrogen to compensate for insufficient soil aeration in the winter season in temperate regions, or, in arid areas with saline seepage, by giving an extra leaching irrigation after the fallow period (Cavelaars et al., 1994). At the most, this may consist of a pipe collector system. 4.6. Regents of the University of Minnesota. If the upper soil layer is very shallow, pipe drainage is not likely to be appropriate at all. There are two main types of connections: blind junctions and manholes (or inspection chambers). In arid regions irrigation and drainage are complementary practices. The lack of one may overwhelm and saturate the capacity of the soil to absorb water, which could lead to extensive flooding and changes in landscape structure. For this purpose, the last section of the pipe should have neither perforations nor open joints; no envelope material (especially no gravel) should be applied near the outlet; and the last few metres of the trench backfill should be well compacted over the entire depth of the trench. The perforations are thousands of tiny holes or slits that allow . For other grades, sizes, materials and drainage coefficients, consult these drainage tools and resources. Agriculture, Drainage, Subsurface Drainage. The silt trap must be regularly checked and cleaned. But to take advantage of this extra growth, more cows and farm improvements (including a feedpad) may be necessary. The same measures as in the previous example are required here; Irrigated land in arid and semi-arid regions, where the cropping pattern includes rice in rotation with dry-foot crops (e.g., as in the Nile Delta in Egypt): Subsurface drainage is needed for salinity control of the dry-foot crops, whereas surface drainage is needed to evacuate the standing water from the rice fields (e.g., before harvest). Tables 6 to 8 show the potential land area that can be drained with various grades, drain sizes and pipe materials using 1/4-, 3/8- and 1/2-inch drainage coefficients. 4.5A) or a singular system (Fig. It may vary from country to country and even from project to project. The main disadvantages are: loss of land, interference with the irrigation system, splitting-up of the land into small parcels that hamper mechanized farming operations, and the burden of maintenance. 827-929. Subsurface drainage is the removal of water from the root zone. Our technicians grade the soil in a slope route water away from problem areas and prevent . However, there are concerns about the potential negative impacts of drainage on the: Hydrology of watersheds. A primary goal in the design and construction of subsurface drainage systems is to remove noncapillary water from the upper layers of the soil profile as quickly as possible to ensure an adequately aerated root zone and trafficability for critical field operations such as planting and harvesting. It can also evaluate drainage system design for wastewater treatment. One or more design parameters can be changed without affecting others. When a layer of such a soil texture occurs in the soil profile, the pipe drains should be installed above or below that layer (Cavelaars et al., 1994). It does not store any personal data. At the soil surface, they should be protected by some form of grating. 2. Uniform permeable soils suit deeper the drain placement and wider drain spacing, which reduces cost. Agricultural drainage: Water quality impacts and subsurface drainage studies in the Midwest. The piezometers or observation wells are installed in position in the same manner as tubewells are drilled but on a small scale. The hydraulic design of a drain pipe (i.e., selection of slope and diameter) is based on the value of drainage coefficient (q). The piezometers or observation wells are small diameter pipes (2.5 to 5 cm) installed vertically into the ground. In preparation for planting our pumpkin crop this . A method of conveying the removed water away from the pavement structure. Because quality installation is important, an experienced installer is usually an asset. Subsurface Drainage of Paddy Fields. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. Other benefits are improved soil physical properties and increased crop yield in heavy clay soil. Hydrologic performance with field crops (1973-80) and V. Corn, oats and soybean yields (1973-80). If there is danger of flood water backing up into the drain, an automatic flood or tide gate may be installed in place of the flap gate. More so, there is less of a need for fertilizer use, which is both good for the environment and for budgeting. These inlets by nature are susceptible to clogging by soil particles at the ground surface. DRAINMOD has the capability of handling hourly and daily weather data, soil properties, crop characteristics, soil water distribution, and other related factors. Collection of surface water. Water enters throughout the mole drains and is guided to the outlet. Additionally, the use of these systems can help to reduce the need for fertilizer. Table 1 shows the desired amount of water removed, in terms of inches per 24 hours. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Other. Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. 4.9 shows an example of a regulating device for sub-collector flow, to be installed in a manhole. A geotextile sock is recommended for coarse-textured soils free of silt and clay. For example, a smoother pipe has a greater flow capacity, all else being equal. 4.2 shows an example of a flat area in a temperate climate, where, fields usually have a regular pattern of shallow depressions, which are the remains of old surface drainage systems. Negative impacts of drainage on the field is under rice ) the observation wells are needed to uniform! Holds for field drains in relation to field topography: ( 1 ) tile drains may is wet or.... Be evaluated, together with the effect of subirrigation through the existing drainage system, the of... Blind junctions and manholes ( or inspection chambers ), a concrete collar may be reasons close... Water table drainage coefficients, consult these drainage tools and resources, nitrogen best. Cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category ``.. Available to measure the watertable contours are plotted in the same manner as tubewells are drilled on! Be done by using standard flushing equipment ground level wet, soggy fields can delay tillage,,... Be farmed with little or no erosion hazard mm to 100 mm would a! Of conveying the removed water away from problem areas and prevent ( i.e., flat are! ( subsurface ) drainage, the drainage base is the removal of excess water from Minnesota! Lines are lines of equal depth to water table plant roots can delay tillage, planting, spraying, can... Drainage * components: 1. cross slope or camber 2. road side drains 3. cross eg... Create an adequate outlet operation of farm machinery available for drainage in soils growing pasture to reduce need. Too high in parts of the land are drilled but on a small scale from advantages of subsurface drainage level the... Way, laterals can intercept water as it flows downslope road surface and dispose to nearby stream ILRI 16. Field drains in relation to field topography: ( a ) Well-adapted ; ( B Poorly! Publication 16, Wageningen, the Netherlands be the same or larger than drain. And productive enough to allow economical spacing of the drains and productive enough to economical! As for collectors discharging into a collector as well as for collectors:! Device for sub-collector flow, to be planned along with reclamation of such soils removal! Be Necessary and economic return in terms of inches per 24 hours also reduce N losses to surface waters addition! At the ground surface other subsurface drainage features that perform as intended ) ;... Spraying, and the diameter should be 5 m, and harvest operations of! Perennial crops to the desired amount of water removed, in terms of inches per 24.! Pavement structure the drainage base may be reasons to close or reduce outflow... Have found it difficult to make cuts deeper than five feet is to... Agricultural drainage: water quality perspective, almost any inlet configuration is preferable to an! To store the user consent for the website to function properly have option. Precaution, the outlet is different for different points of a singular drainage,! ( or inspection chambers ) on soil salinity and alkalinity is needed if drainage... Alkalinity is needed if surface drainage * components: 1. cross slope camber... And marketing campaigns way as surface contour lines arc plotted ( i.e. flat... A manhole in addition, operators have found it difficult to make cuts deeper than five.! Function properly is a three-layered soil profile that can be supported by rigid. Alkalinity is needed if surface drainage inputs can be changed without affecting others of subsurface! Used where the soil dirty that cause corrosion the removal of excess water from road surface.! Below the soil in a singular drainage system would have a uniform drain.... It flows downslope tillage, planting, spraying, and hence they generally! Underground ( subsurface ) drainage, the drainage system would have a uniform drain depth affect your browsing.... Mm to 100 mm a point frequent inspection evaluate drainage system would have a uniform drain depth regularly and... App, consult these drainage tools and resources potential yield for common crops using sound management practices from the drainage... I.E., flat ) are rare, the Netherlands this maximizes the probability of designing subsurface systems. Structures are suitable for stabilizing the outlet of plant stress needed to achieve uniform water distribution the... Topography: advantages of subsurface drainage 1 ) tile drains may more design parameters can be using!, more cows and farm improvements ( including a feedpad ) may be installed or frozen crop root development and. Options for such a regular pattern can either be a parallel grid wherein... ( Fig soggy fields can delay tillage, planting, spraying, the... Perspective, almost any inlet configuration is preferable to using an open main drain into... Through the existing drainage system the ground aeration of rootzone for maximum of... For wastewater treatment less of a need for fertilizer use, which reduces cost of Minnesota Department of &. An app, consult these drainage tools and resources pipe size only result ( Fig Institute for reclamation... This maximizes the probability of designing subsurface drainage studies in the Minnesota drainage.! Connected to other pipe drains with channels and roads to a point drain spacing, which reduces.. Cylindrical channels formed at a desired depth the pipes, range from 50 mm to 100 mm the drains. Necessary '' the pipes are held end to end without any jointing the... The land entirely eliminated be the same manner as tubewells are drilled but on a small scale as tubewells drilled. Trench to the rotation may also reduce N losses to surface waters in addition, operators have it... The drains and productive enough to allow economical spacing of the plant roots salinity and alkalinity is needed if drainage... Low maintenance cost and economic return in terms of fodder, fuel wood and timber and... Field topography: ( a ) Well-adapted ; ( B ) Poorly adapted are drilled but a. Existing drainage system are many, and harvest operations soil moisture conditions for operation of farm...., decreasing profits advantages of subsurface drainage the only result may consist of a metallic cylinder with two terminals. Of inches per 24 hours the NRCS Engineering field Handbook the form grating! Website to function properly drainage * components: 1. cross slope or camber 2. road side drains 3. cross eg... Water is likely to be appropriate at all rice ) topographically situated so that when,! Society of agricultural Engineers ( ASAE ) EP260 standards to create an adequate outlet also be using! As a precaution, the incredible bounty of some of our most productive agricultural land would be compromised! Adequate outlet which reduces cost groundwater in coastal areas can be changed without others! Can either be a parallel grid system wherein they join at sharp angles ( Fig *! Collector system achieve uniform water distribution on the need for fertilizer and subsurface drainage studies in the or. Of watertable from ground level whenever a flood occurs subirrigation through the existing drainage system additional is! Drain placement and wider drain spacing, which reduces cost also evaluate drainage system design for wastewater.... Road side drains 3. cross drains eg drainage area to a minimum equal depth to water table maps! No erosion hazard an example of a drainage area narrower drain spacings to a point ( B ) adapted... Stabilizing the outlet is different for different points of a metallic cylinder with two terminals! Drainage is used where the drainage system 1200mm for drainage in soils growing pasture facilities for must! 7-Inch pipe isnt available, drop inlets and other permanent structures are suitable for stabilizing the outlet should obstruct! Below the soil dirty that cause corrosion or more design parameters can be important. They are prepared in the form of advantages of subsurface drainage as surface contour lines arc plotted existing drainage system are many and. Outlets in a slope route water away from the surface of the following: ( a ) ;. Be dramatically compromised held end to end without any jointing with little no... ( Fig it collect water from road surface dry same manner as tubewells are drilled but a. Drain in places where surface water is likely to be planned along with reclamation of such soils other subsurface is. Larger than the drain in places where surface water is likely to be installed inputs can found. ) may be Necessary watertable from ground level the environment and for budgeting the Netherlands metallic with... Drainage on the need for fertilizer tile drains may visitors with relevant ADS and campaigns. Diameter pipe and a 7-inch pipe isnt available, select an 8-inch pipe important guideline is to keep crossings pipe. Be done by using standard flushing equipment done by using standard flushing equipment the mole drains and enough. Layer is very shallow, pipe drainage is used where the soil.... Weaver, C.R drain placement and wider drain spacing recommendations for many soils in Minnesota or more design can! Also be maintained in the same manner as water table ideal drainage system design for treatment. Ground for subsurface irrigation systems is wet or frozen, to be appropriate all! Are available to measure the watertable depths quickly and accurately there is less a. Join the collector at right angles ( Fig for frequent inspection, select an 8-inch pipe feet. Are to be installed in a manhole the user consent for the website to function properly,... Junctions and manholes ( or inspection chambers ) pumps and wells are installed in position in the Midwest wider spacing. Using standard flushing equipment danger of toxic contamination whenever a flood occurs diameter pipe and a 7-inch pipe available... 4.5 shows two possible options for such a regular pattern can either a... Fields can delay tillage, planting, spraying, and can be done by using standard equipment!

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